Assessment
Development and practical implications of the Exercise Resourcefulness Inventory

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2015.02.004Get rights and content

Highlights

  • The Exercise Resourcefulness Inventory (ERI) assesses strategies promoting exercise.

  • The validity and reliability of the ERI were supported.

  • Individuals having higher ERI scores were more likely to be regular exercisers.

  • Improvements in exercise resourcefulness were associated with increases in activity.

  • Tailoring programs according to one's resourcefulness skills may prevent relapse.

Abstract

Objective

To determine the validity and reliability of the Exercise Resourcefulness Inventory (ERI) designed to assess the self-regulatory strategies used to promote regular exercise.

Methods

In Study 1, the inventory's relationship with other established scales in the exercise behavior change field was examined. In Study 2, the test–retest reliability and predictive validity of the ERI was established by having participants from Study 1 complete the inventory a second time.

Results

Internal consistency, and convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity were supported in both studies. The test–retest correlation of the ERI was .80. As well, participants scoring higher on the ERI in Study 1 were more likely to be at a higher stage of change in Study 2, and greater increases in exercise resourcefulness over time were predictive of advancement to higher stages of change.

Conclusions

ERI is a reliable and valid measure to assess the self-regulatory strategies used to promote regular exercise.

Practical implications

Facilitators may want to tailor exercise programs for individuals scoring lower in resourcefulness to prevent them from relapsing.

Introduction

The benefits of regular exercise on physical and psychological health have been well established. Evidence shows that several months of regular physical activity reduces the risk of coronary heart disease, diabetes, various cancers, and other life-threatening diseases [1], [2], as well as reduces chronic stress and anxiety, and improves mood [3], [4], [5]. Despite initiatives to get people of all ages active [6], [7], [8], [9], many people wanting to exercise regularly fail to do so, often because obstacles interfere with their intent to become active [10], [11]. Few questionnaires, however, exist to measure how people deal with these obstacles. The current investigation utilized data from a mixed methods study with undergraduate students who were regular and non-regular exercisers to generate items forming the Exercise Resourceful Inventory (ERI) assessing the self-regulatory strategies needed for exercise. It also built on the self-control model for exercise proposed by Kennett et al. [12].

Several theoretical models have been used to explain exercise behavior change, including the transtheoretical model [13], theory of planned behavior [10], and self-determination theory [14]. Our study relied on Kennett et al.’s [12] adaptation of Rosenbaum's model of self-control [15], [16] to understand why some people wanting to exercise regularly are unable to attain this goal. A key component of this model is general learned resourcefulness, which are the cognitive and behavioral skills acquired early in life, and include the use of positive self-statements to regulate emotions and discomforts, the use of problem-solving strategies (such as planning, and anticipating consequences), and delaying immediate gratification, to help guide behaviors and change bad habits. Over the past several decades, research shows that people higher in resourcefulness are better able to maintain healthy lifestyle practices, and follow instructions that improve their health compared to less resourceful people [17], [18], [19], [20], [21].

Highly resourceful people are not immune to stressors or developing bad habits; however, when they decide to change they are generally more successful than those with lower resourcefulness [15], [18], [22], [23], [24]. Thus, contrary to the other aforementioned models, the desire to change behavior is of fundamental importance to Rosenbaum's model, and, because of this, individuals who have no interest in changing (in precomptemplation), are not included. For individuals wanting to change, their level of general learned resourcefulness skills along with cognitions such as self-efficacy (believing they are capable of change), reasons for change, and the pros and cons of change determine their ability to utilize the necessary self-regulatory strategies to initiate and maintain the new behavior (for example, maintaining regular exercise).

Generalizing this model to exercise, Kennett et al. [12] asked university students who ranged from contemplating exercise to maintaining a regular exercise program to complete questionnaires assessing learned resourcefulness, self-efficacy for exercise, personal reasons for exercise, and the processes of change. The Processes of Change Questionnaire (PCQ) [25] was used to tap the specific self-control strategies for exercise, and it consists of two components: the experiential (e.g., read about exercise, and realize the connection between exercise and emotion) and the behavioral (e.g., substituting exercise for inactivity, and making a commitment to change) processes.

As predicted, Kennett et al. [12] found that individuals higher in resourcefulness were more likely to be in the maintenance stage of change than less resourceful individuals. These individuals were also more likely to report having higher task, coping and scheduling self-efficacy, and using the behavioral processes over any experiential ones. Equally important was the finding that lower resourceful individuals in the contemplation stage of change were less likely to use the behavioral processes compared to the more highly resourceful individuals in the same stage, as well individuals at the higher stages. The authors concluded that the challenge remaining is helping less resourceful individuals in the contemplation stage with the strategies that support activity. Otherwise, it may be more difficult for them to advance to higher stages of change compared to individuals with higher learned resourcefulness. Moreover, they cautioned that the widely used PCQ failed to monitor many elements of the self-regulatory repertoire, including the use of positive self-talk to deal with overexertion, goal setting, planning, and they encouraged researchers to address this issue.

To understand the self-regulatory strategies facilitating exercise behavior, we used a mixed methods approach to generate items for the ERI. Undergraduate students (N = 33) wanting to become or who were already regular exercisers were interviewed about how they dealt with obstacles to exercise. Rosenbaum's [26] Self-Control Schedule, assessing general learned resourcefulness, was completed before each interview, and scores were used as the lens to shape the analysis of the qualitative text-based data. The analysis used the constant comparative method with progressive coding from open to axial to selective coding [27], contrasting first participants who had extremely low and high resourcefulness scores and moving toward individuals with more moderate scores. Five major themes were identified. In Theme 1 (use of social support), less resourceful participants relied heavily on social support to get them moving, whereas the more highly resourceful participants were able to maintain regular exercise without it. In Theme 2 (lifestyle integration, or lack thereof), participants scoring higher in resourcefulness viewed exercise as an important part of a balanced, healthy lifestyle, whereas lower resourceful participants viewed it as being something “extra” in their day. In Theme 3 (benefits of exercise), higher resourceful participants realized exercise's benefits to health, using this to motivate them to remain active, whereas lack of this realization reduced lower resourceful participants’ motivation to remain active. In Theme 4 (overcoming obstacles to exercise), higher resourceful participants used a wide array of strategies to overcome the same obstacles described by those scoring lower in resourcefulness but who were having limited success overcoming them. Lastly, in Theme 5 (dealing with scheduling issues), highly resourceful participants, unlike their lower resourceful counterparts, consistently scheduled exercise and followed through with their plans.

Interestingly, the use of the experiential processes to becoming active was not described in our pilot study. For example, no one discussed reading about exercise to learn more, how their exercising affected others, and about the type of person they would be if they exercised. Regarding the behavioral processes, the more highly resourceful participants readily substituted exercise for inactivity, made a commitment to change and controlled stimuli that supported change. And, although all of our participants discussed the use of social support, the description of this support differed depending on one's learned resourcefulness score. As suspected [12], our moderately and highly resourceful participants used other salient strategies not addressed by the PCQ, namely, goal setting (e.g., selecting activities one enjoys), problem-solving (e.g., having a variety of activities to fall back on), and time management (e.g., exercising at a particular time of the day).

From the thematic-based analysis of our interviews, the 30-item ERI was created, as shown in Table 1. Features of the ERI are also synonymous with Rosenbaum's Self-Control Schedule, assessing general learned resourcefulness, and include positive self-talk, delaying immediate gratification and employing problem-solving strategies. Fourteen out of thirty total items are reversed scored items, reflecting the stories told by the lower resourceful participants.

Section snippets

Introduction of Study 1

This study investigated the internal consistency and validity of the ERI using the exercise self-control model as its foundation. The Self-Control Schedule assessing general learned resourcefulness [26] and the PCQ [25] were used to provide convergent and discriminant validity of the ERI. Given the proactive nature of the behavioral processes, it was expected to be more highly correlated with the ERI compared to the experiential processes of the PCQ. The Stages of Change Questionnaire [28] was

Participants

Of the 564 undergraduate students enrolled in psychology courses at a liberal arts university in Ontario, Canada, majority were female (86%) with a mean age of 19 (range 17–29), and in their first (64%) or second (30%) year. This convenience sample represented students from a variety of university disciplines, including psychology, nursing, English, biochemistry, politics, economics, biology, sociology, forensics and education. Regarding stage of change for exercise, 15% were contemplating

Results of Study 1

The means and standard deviations, and correlation matrix of all variables are presented in Table 2. Demonstrating discriminant validity, test of dependent correlations showed that exercise resourcefulness correlated significantly higher with the stages of change than the behavioral processes, t(561) = 6.89, p < .001. Convergent validity was also supported; the ERI positively correlated with general learned resourcefulness and the behavioral processes of the PCQ, as well as with coping, task, and

Discussion of Study 1

This study investigated the validity and reliability of the ERI, and its ability to predict the stages of change over and above the PCQ. All hypotheses were confirmed. For example, providing support for the main hypothesis, exercise resourcefulness was correlated significantly higher with the stages of change than the behavioral processes of the PCQ. As well, those individuals with higher exercise resourcefulness also had higher general learned resourcefulness, and task, coping and scheduling

Introduction of Study 2

Study 2 assessed the ERI's test–retest reliability and confirmed its ability to predict progression through the stages of change over time. All participants who completed Study 1 were invited to complete the same assessments at least six weeks later. It was hypothesized that the relationships found in Study 1 would be replicated in Study 2. Additional hypotheses included those regressing through the stages over time would exhibit lower exercise resourcefulness, whereas those progressing would

Participants, measures and procedure

Participants for this study were 134 students who had previously completed Study 1. The majority of the participants were female (93%) with a mean age of 20. They were all undergraduate students predominantly in their first (58%) or second (32%) year of study. Over half (55%) of the participants majored in a subject other than psychology.

Measures were the same as Study 1. All participants who completed Study 1 were contacted via email informing them of their eligibility to complete Study 2.

Results of Study 2

Descriptive statistics of the variables did not change for this sub-sample. Number of days between testing was unrelated to the variables. The internal consistency of the ERI was .95, and test–retest reliability was .80, meeting discipline standards [33].

Moreover, this sub-sample's Test 1 scores for the variables were similar to those opting not to participate in Study 2. The only two exceptions observed was that non-Time 2 participants were slightly more externally motivated to exercise (Ms = 

Discussion of Study 2

The goal of Study 2 was to confirm the findings of Study 1, and to establish the test–retest reliability and predictive validity of the ERI. Test–retest reliability was confirmed and Cronbach's alpha and split-half reliability were similar to those of Study 1, demonstrating the stability of the inventory over a period of at least six weeks. Participants having higher ERI scores at time 1 predicted a higher stage of change at time 2. As well, exercise resourcefulness continued to exhibit strong

Discussion

These studies demonstrated the validity and reliability of the ERI, as well as its powerful ability to predict the stages of change over the behavioral processes of the PCQ. By comparing the data from Studies 1 and 2, test–retest reliability was established for the ERI, and its ability to predict movement across the stages of change was confirmed. These findings demonstrate the potential of the ERI to be used as an alternate tool to the PCQ to measure the specific self-regulatory strategies

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